A few investigators have studied the relationship between certain global changes in the brain and the cognitive-developmental levels occurring during the school years. They have uncovered evidence that brain or head growth may spurt on the average at ages 4-5, 6-7, 10-12, and 14-16 (Eichorn and Bayley, 1962; Epstein, 1974, 1980; Fischer and Pipp, 1984; Nellhaus, 1968). The primary data involve growth in head circumference and change in certain waves of the electroencephalogram. The data for head circumference tend to support the occurrence of spurts at the expected ages, but there is substantial inconsistency across studies (McQueen, 1982). Fewer studies exist on the electroencephalogram, but extant data appear to be more consistent across samples. For brain-wave characteristics that show consistent increases or decreases with age, children show spurts during the four predicted age periods.
The two left circles represent, respectively, structures that are external and internal to an individual. Consider a girl engaged in solving a puzzle with her father. The father provides external structures to support or scaffold her puzzle solving by stating the goal of the task, lining up a puzzle piece to highlight how it fits in its particular place, providing verbal hints, and so forth (Brown, 1980; Kaye, 1982; Wertsch, 1979; Wood, 1980). The child's knowledge and skills for solving the puzzle constitute the core of the developing internal structures.
DD GIRNAR HOME LEARNING KARYKRAM PRASHAN UKELO INAM MELVO : Question Solutions Get Prize Winner Standard 3 to 8
Regarding the role of literate practices in advanced forms of thought, we have already proposed that modem scientific enterprises are literally inconceivable to preliterates because they involve explicit attempts to revise entire conceptual systems. It remains to be seen whether other examples of such systemic analysis can be found among preliterates (Goody, 1977).
Though the concept of "rule" was controversial two decades ago, today it provides a basis for one of the most promising approaches for exact specification of the cognitive structures underlying child performance. Indeed, it also promises more generally to provide a powerful tool for describing change and continuity in cognitive organization.
One of the reasons for the lack of research on emotional reorganizations and Freudian processes has been that it has proved to be difficult to determine how to investigate them. Research with seriously disturbed children is particularly difficult to do, and the induction of strong emotions in children for research purposes is unethical. As a result, scholars interested in pursuing these important questions have often had to approach them indirectly—studying, for example, the development of children's conceptions of defense mechanisms in other people (Chandler et al., 1978).
Unfortunately, criteria for testing the reality of the four school-age levels have not been clearly explicated in most cognitive-developmental investigations. There seems to be little question that some kind of significant qualitative change in behavior occurs during each of the four specified age intervals, but researchers have not generally explicated what sort of qualitative change is substantial enough to be counted as a new level or stage. Learning a new concept, such as addition, can produce a qualitative change in behavior; but by itself such a qualitative change hardly seems to warrant designation as a level. Thus, clearer specification is required of what counts as a developmental level.
DD GIRNAR HOME LEARNING KARYKRAM PRASHAN UKELO INAM MELVO : Question Solutions Get Prize Winner Date 18-1-2021 Standard 3 to 8
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